At least three different ways to use recycled water are applied around the world: groundwater and aquifer replenishment, surface water augmentation and direct potable reuse. Barriers to the installation of new recycling schemes tend not to be technical but arise from other parameters including the ‘yuck factor’; peoples emotional response to the prospect of drinking recycled sewage even though it is highly treated, clarified and safe. Both indirect (eg surface water augmentation) and direct potable reuse have advantages to utilities which include reduced overall energy requirements, construction and operational costs. Despite this, utilities find it difficult to assess the relative costs and benefits of various water reuse options. This research developed a Water Supply Evaluation tool (WaterSET) which is build on a MatLab platform but does not require a license to operate through its user-friendly Excel spreadsheet interface. It uses a comparison model which incorporates analysis of economic and scheme lifecycle costs, as well as environmental and social impacts. WaterSET generates a multi-criteria decision analysis that enables utilities to select the best recycling and reuse option for their own situation and customer base.

The ‘One Water’ paradigm recognises the interconnectedness of groundwater, stormwater, wastewater, flooding, water quality, wetlands, watercourses, estuaries, and coastal waters, and integrates multi-use, flexible and environmentally sustainable systems while valuing all urban water flows as a potential resource. Decades of water production, sewage treatment and urban development, have resulted in pipe and pump-station networks with the associated procedural systems for regulation and governance. Altogether, these form barriers to ‘One Water’ recycling and reuse. This research investigated, described, and defined these barriers and the strategies and actions used to overcome them. This was accomplished by reviewing published literature, by collating case studies and by recording the outputs of interactive workshops. It was concluded that obstacles to ‘One Water’ include the existing system of centralised and silo-ed expertise and the current complex structure of regulations governing safety of water supply, wastewater, and stormwater management. Research findings were used to develop a framework for transitioning to more flexible ‘One Water’ management processes which focus on integrated resource planning, incremental implementation, and the collaboration of traditional urban planners with water resource managers.

The Australian water industry is an active participant in research that aims to improve water quality but there are often barriers to disseminating and implementing research findings and results. This project referred to technical research which developed methods, including in vitro cell culture, to check the safety of recycled water (WaterRA Project 2002). The original research included delivery of a series of workshops to disseminate findings. This project followed up by administering an online survey in which 29 of the workshop participants gave feedback about ongoing adoption and implementation of Project 2002 activities. They reported a perception of regulatory and industry barriers to the broad acceptance and implementation of in vitro methods. It was concluded that the combination of workshops and online survey was an effective way to evaluate the progress (or otherwise) of technology transfer.

The steam produced by boiling a kettle of salty water can be collected, condensed and drunk. Membrane distillation is an analogous process to this, but in this study the salty feedwater forms a salt-free vapour at a lower temperature; 30 – 40°C. The warm feedwater and vapour are pumped past a thin, porous membrane which repels liquid water but allows vapour to pass through the pores into a cold stream of freshwater on the other side. The vapour condenses and increases the volume of fresh, salt-free water. In this project an operational pilot plant was built and installed at an electricity generating station which produces waste heat and a stream of salty effluent that is normally discarded. The pilot plant was equipped with a 0.67m2 membrane, ran continuously for 3 months, and produced an average of 2.2L freshwater per hour. This equates to 3.4L/h/m2. The membrane area can be scaled up to increase production. It was concluded that this is a viable treatment technology for industrial wastewater that emits minimal greenhouse gasses.

Burkholderia pseudomallei is a bacteria that is widespread in SE Asia and northern Australia, where there are an average of 16 cases per 100,000 people. This research found that water samples collected in and around Cairns from June to September did NOT contain Burkholderia pseudomallei and led to the conclusion that the risk of infection is much lower than in Darwin or Townsville.

Failure to maintain appropriate levels of knowledge, skill, and experience in the frontline operator workforce runs the risk of disruption and loss of service delivery consequent to human error, along with associated risks to the environment and public health and safety. This research reviewed literature that reports water quality safety incidents, other industry training requirements, and forward-looking training preparedness for new technologies. A case study and water industry survey provided additional information for review. Five key operating principles proved important to operator development and training. It was found that the Australian water industry lacks workforce competency and management practices that are well-established in the aviation, nursing, electrical and engineering industries, and that many utilities do not use the Water Industry Operators Certification Framework, even though this provides the best pathway to frontline operator competency and management. It was concluded that the Australian water industry would benefit from considering regulatory changes to drive a nationally consistent governance approach to the provision of frontline operator training and competency certification.

Although a cluster of customer complaints can identify specific water quality issues such as a dirty water event, it is more difficult to understand the extent of general customer satisfaction with water quality and taste. The Final Report for this project includes four printable water quality Factsheets for the general public which explain tastes and odours, fluoridation, and disinfection. The Report also includes the protocols and texts for two customer engagement techniques: Blind Taste Testing and Systematic Taste Testing; as well as a comprehensive customer survey instrument to assess perceptions of drinking water quality. These can be downloaded to electronic mobile devices and used to direct face to face customer engagement with the tastes and odours of different types of potable water. The scoresheet links to a rating spreadsheet that collates results and generates graphical representations of customer acceptance of water sample taste. These tools have been used to assess customer satisfaction with water quality at large events including National Water Quality week or Utility information days.

Cryptosporidium, a microscopic single-cell parasite, forms an “oocyst” with a resistant outer layer analogous to an eggshell. Oocysts survive for a long time in the environment but UV in sunlight, and high temperatures that cause desiccation, kill them. If a mammal drinks water containing live oocysts, they embed in the gut wall and continue their lifecycle until eventually many more oocysts are excreted. There are 26 species of cryptosporidium but only five infect humans, and two; Cryptosporidium hominus and Cryptosporidium parvum, cause approximately 95% of all human infections. C. hominus occurs only in humans, but C. parvum is also found in cattle, sheep, and other animals. The problem is that human-infecting oocysts are excreted by animals in catchments and rain can wash live oocysts into water reservoirs. This research collated peer-reviewed published literature, and information and data collected by the water industry, then characterised the distribution of different Cryptosporidium species in Australian catchments. This led to recognition of a research need to track and predict live and dead oocyst transport during different weather events, and to model and evaluate catchment management initiatives such as excluding cattle from reservoir areas.

The ADWG 2011 lacked objective, quantifiable criteria for measuring pathogen removal from source waters. The WHO requires that health-based targets (HBTs) are used to ensure safe drinking water. HBTs can be set by making ‘Disability Adjusted Life Year’ (DALY) calculations which incorporate information about a population; the average Australian lifespan and the impact of infection on the length of a healthy life. Pathogen levels in water that correspond to micro-DALYs with minimal population-level effects are too low to be detectable by existing tests. This problem is addressed by calculating ‘log removal values’ (LRVs). Pathogens can be measured in source and treated water after the application of a defined method. When 90% of the pathogen is removed, the LRV equals 1, while 99% removal has an LRV of 2. HBTs incorporate LRVs, which are based on objective, quantifiable criteria, to reduce pathogen loads to levels that correspond to acceptable Australian micro-DALY levels. This research collated existing datasets about pathogens in source waters and the efficiency of their removal by treatment plants around Australia. From this, default pathogen levels for a range of Australian source waters and climate events, and LRVs for different treatment methodologies were obtained.

Climate change is depleting water resources, while population increases drive demand for additional recreational facilities, particularly in the vicinity of urban centres. It was thought that public access to water catchment land and reservoirs might cause large-scale outbreaks of disease, and that the water-consuming public would have to pay more for the additional water treatment required to keep drinking water free of the organisms that cause infectious disease. Some consider this unfair because it is an added expense that results from recreational access by a minority of the population. This research considered peer-reviewed literature, policy and regulation, hazard and risk assessment procedures, and placed these in the context of interviews, focus group interactions and surveys. It was concluded that although the science of the adverse effects of recreational access on water quality continues to stand up to examination, there is now justification for conducting an advanced risk-benefit analysis which was developed during the study. This uses a ‘multi-attribute utility’ approach that enables assessment of any given situation by incorporating cross-impact matrices. This risk-benefit methodology addresses the significant issues that arise when adjusting or implementing new recreational access priorities.